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The FAO defines plantations as "forest stands established
by planting and/or seedling in the process of afforestation
or reforestation. They are either of introduced species (all
planted stands), or intensively managed stands of indigenous
species, which meet all the following criteria: one or two
species at planting, even age class, regular spacing".
Plantations for the supply of roundwood for sawn timber, veneer
and pulp have been classified as industrial plantations. A
further important category of plantations is for non-timber
commodities, such as oil palm, rubber, coconut palm, bamboo
and palm heart. All other plantations are considered as non-industrial
plantation and include those for fuelwood, soil and water
protection and amenity purposes.
The proportion of plantations to total forest cover in the
tropics is low, also in comparison with temperate areas. The
largest areas of plantation are in India, Indonesia, Brazil
and Thailand, while China also has large plantations, which
are mostly not in the tropical area. The planted area, c.
190,000,000 ha by the end of the 1990s, is expanding rapidly,
by 150% between 1980 and 1990 according to the International
Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO). Productivity in plantation
forest far exceeds that in natural forests - while a productivity
of 1 m3 per ha is the rule for natural forests, plantations
yield 10-20 and even up to 50 m3 per ha.
Many plantations in the tropics make use of exotic, non-native
fast growing species, mainly Gmelina arborea, Eucalyptus spp.,
and Pinus caribaea, for the production of low-grade fibre
or roundwood. High value hardwood species, mainly Tectona
grandis (teak), but also Swietenia spp. (Mahogany) and Dalbergia
(Rosewood) constitute only 10% of plantations in the tropics
.
There are a number of dilemmas and controversies associated
with plantations in the tropics. The world's future wood demands
cannot be met from increasingly scarce natural forests, so
high productive plantations provide an alternative. At the
same time, competition for land on which to establish plantations
also increases, due to mounting populations in many tropical
countries. This leads to frequent conflicts for land, clean
water, and access to plants and wildlife, particularly if
plantations are established in areas that are suitable to
meet local livelihoods. Problems with biodiversity conservation
arise if plantations are laid out as pure monocultures and
if they replace native forest. Therefore, efforts are made
to establish plantations on unproductive or degraded land,
and to manage them in a way that is consistent with needs
of surrounding communities (see #certification). More recent
is the debate on the role of plantations in carbon sequestration,
and the distribution of benefits associated with carbon trade.
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